INTRODUCTION

Classroom management is defined as the courses of action that teachers undertake through their behavior as well as their activities, aiming to enhance their students’ consideration and cooperation in the classroom setting (Brannon, 2010). Besides, it is divided into two dimensions by Martin and Sass (2010). Firstly, behavior management consists of a set of strategies to prevent, instead of reacting to, students’ misbehavior. To this end, teachers are encouraged to provide better student input and establish specific rules in the classroom. Secondly, instructional management is concerned with allocating more suitable learning materials, developing effective lesson plans, and undertaking appropriate daily classroom procedures.

Furthermore, classroom management should aim to integrate four areas: “establishing and reinforcing rules and procedures, carrying out disciplinary actions, maintaining effective teacher and student relationships, and maintaining an appropriate mental set for management” (Marzano & Marzano, 2003, p. 88). According to Brown (2007), classroom management is making decisions in unexpected situations in the class such as the times when teachers are asked a question they don’t know the answer, when the students digress the teachers' plans, whena technical problem occurs, when the students interrupt the class, and when the teachers don’t have enough time to complete a task. To put it in a nutshell, classroom management aids classroom instruction and pedagogy to ensure a productive and safe learning environment (Alter & Haydon 2017; Cooper et al. 2018; Evertson and Weinstein 2006; Scott 2017). 

Classroom management at all education levels from kindergarten to university requires teachers to adopt different strategies, thus impacting the students' learning and behaviors. An English teacher’s classroom behavior can considerably influence the amount of students' learning (Brown, 2007). According to Hattie (2012), teachers have a key role in an effective education system. Besides, in a poorly managed classroom, effective learning cannot take place (Jones & Jones, 2012; Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003; Oliver, Wehby, & Reschly, 2011; Van de Grift, Van der Wal, & Torenbeek, 2011).

Regardless of skill level and experience in this area, many teachers are interested to know how they can improve their classroom management skills, hence enhancing their students’ learning. This is because the classroom management strategies are considered to be “the most valuable skills set a teacher can have” (Landua, 2001, p. 4) and their sound practicality has been widely supported throughout the related literature (Huntly, 2008; Jones, 2006; Kafman & Moss, 2010; McKenzi, Rowley, Weldon, & Murphy, 2011; Peters, 2012). Similarly, Chambers (2003) pointed out that many teachers believe in the significant role of classroom management in teaching.

The issue of classroom management has been widely discussed, and researchers have investigated the effects of classroom management on various aspects of students' learning (Aliakbari & Darabi, 2013; Brophy, 1983; Burden, 2003). Other researchers have investigated the classroom management effects on students’ behavior (Kayıkçı , 2009; Oliver, Wehby, & Reschly, 2011). Nunan (1995) pointed out the way that students think about their teachers' classroom management is also an important factor that may have effects on students' learning.  However, factors influencing classroom management behaviors need more research.Thus, teachers' classroom management strategies need to be researched more, and factors which might affect these strategies need to be identified.

Previous literature has focused on different aspects of classroom management. Some studies have explored the relationship between classroom management and creativity (Azimifar, & Abedini, 2018; Mirzaee, & Rahimi, 2017), its link with students’ academic achievement (Adeyemo, 2012), and its association with student behavior (Gage, Scott, Hirn, & MacSuga-Gage, 2018). Others have measured the effects of classroom management on students’ motivation and academic achievement (Adedigba, & Sulaiman, 2020), and student engagement (Parker, 2017). Additionally, several studies have explored classroom management only at specific educational levels such as the university level (Ali, Jan, & Khokhar, 2020; Saifi, Hussain, Salamat, & Bakht, 2018), and high school (Egeberg, McConney, & Price, 2020). Further, there are a few studies that have taken teachers’ demographic and academic factors into consideration while investigating classroom management ( Oktan, and Çağanağa, 2015; Wolff, Jarodzka, & Boshuizen, 2020). Therefore, there seems to be no study, to the best of the researchers’ knowledge, in the literature to explore different demographic and academic characteristics of the teachers such as their age, gender, teaching context, academic degree, and teaching experience simultaneously with their impact on teachers’ classroom management behavior, especially in the context of Iran. Therefore, the current study aims to contribute to the related literature by filling this gap. Additionally, this comprehensive study has explored the mentioned demographic as well as academic factors in three different teaching contexts: universities, schools, and language institutes.

LITERATURE REVIEW

In the last decades, several studies have highlighted the importance of classroom management in learning. Brown (2007) asserted that classroom management is a basic need for pre-service teachers. Being aware of classroom management strategies is a must for creating an atmosphere conducive to learning. Supporting this, Stoughton (2007) claimed that teachers need to learn and use these strategies to avoid classroom management problems. However, many English language teachers are reported not to receive enough instruction and training on classroom management (Wilkinson, et al., 2020). In the same line, different studies have concluded that classroom management is one of the most troubling aspects of teaching (Edwards, 1993, Manning & Bucher, 2003; Smith, 2000; Sokal, Smith, & Mowat, 2003). Most importantly, McCormack (2001), Estaji & Shafaghi (2018), and Bromfield (2006) asserted that one of the essential tasks for teachers is acquiring and employing classroom management strategies.

According to Pianta (2006) and Wentzel (2006), classroom management strategies will increase both learner-instructor and learner-learner interactions, thus mastering them provides a superior relationship between learner and instructor, hence creating a better atmosphere in the classroom. Martin and Sass (2010) concluded that classroom management means dealing with different students' misbehaviors in different situations, providing suitable instruction, and taking care of participants' feelings and mental needs. Based on this view, they classified classroom management into behavior management and instructional management.

Focusing on the learner and classroom atmosphere, Aliakbari and Bozorgmanesh (2015) investigated the association betweenclassroom management strategies and Iranian students' achievement in a survey with 123 female participants within the age range of 15-17, using a 37-item questionnaire. Then, Pearson correlation coefficient was employed to assess the relationship between participants' achievement and the classroom management strategies used . The researchers concluded that there was a positive relationship between classroom management strategies used by the teachers and the students' performance. They found that using classroom management strategies would enhance the students learning. In another study, Kazemi, and Soleimani (2016) found a significant relationship between Iranian EFL teachers’ preferred classroom management approaches and their teaching style. Results showed that teachers, rather than students, are more centralized in the classrooms, and they prefer interventionist or controlling approaches while managing the behavior and instruction of their class. In addition, Iranian EFL teachers’ classroom management was shown to be associated with their thinking and leadership style.

Looking at the psychological factors and classroom management, Khany and Ghoreyshi (2013) found that the more reflective in thinking and the more transformational in leadership the teachers are, the more efficient they will be in their classroom management as well as teaching process. Similarly, Aliakbari and Darabi (2013) identified a positive relationship between transformational leadership style, the efficacy of classroom management, and the teachers' personality factors. They also found a weak relationship between classroom management efficacy and teachers’ Extraversion, Openness, and Personality factors. Also, they reported that there was a positive relationship between the level of teachers' education and the efficacy of classroom management. Furthermore, in another study by Aliakbari and Sadeghi (2014), teachers' perception of teachers' leadership in the classroom was investigated. The researchers concluded that factors such as age, gender, and years of experience did not have any significant effect on teachers' perception of teacher leadership in classrooms. As it can be seen, most of the studies conducted in the Iranian context, except for Aliakbari and Sadeghi (2014), did not address the demographic features of the teachers. It must be pointed out that their study was done in the Iranian high school context, but this study addresses three different contexts and considers more demographic factors into account. Given the big differences between the goals of language learning, number of students in each class, and age of language learners in Iranian high schools and universities, this study might end with very different results and suggestions. 

High schools are frequently asserted to be important because of the challenges that students of this age bring on for teachers to manage behavioral issues (Boyd et al., 2011; Ingersoll, Merrill, & May, 2012; Torres, 2012). In response to this, several researchers have conducted studies in this context, mostly of correlational nature. Nazrul Islam (2016) investigated the classroom management strategies at the higher secondary level with 49 teachers. Using a questionnaire for data gathering, the researcher used a Pearson product-moment correlation to analyze the data. It was revealed that classroom management directly affects teaching regardless of subject matter or experience. Besides, Sadik and Akbulut (2015) found significant relationship between classroom management skills of teachers at high schools and variables such as age, experience and gender in Turkey. Another study concerned with high school’s students was conducted by Egeberg, McConney, and Price in 2021 in Western Australia, investigating the views of Australian teachers on effective classroom management. The findings indicated that, basically, teachers’ and learners’ stance towards and their experiences on classroom atmosphere were crucial factors in the teaching and learning process.

On the other hand, some studies have measured the effects of classroom management on students learning and engagement. Parker (2017) considered the effects of classroom management on students' engagement. The study was done in a schoolhouse in Washington State, with over 100 students from both black and white cultures. The study was conducted with students studying in 5th and 6th elementary school grades. Data analysis revealed that classroom management helps the students to increase their collaboration in schoolwork. Classroom management strategies were found helpful in increasing students' collaboration in the classroom. Similarly, at the elementary level, specific classroom management strategies, decreasing censure and increasing praise, namely, resulted in improved on-task behavior and fewer classroom disruptions (Caldarella, Williams, Hansen, & Wills, 2015). Classroom management strategies have also been important for triggering motivation at the primary level. According to Adedigba, and Sulaiman (2020), there is a positive relationship between teachers’ classroom management style and students’ behaviors and learning outcomes. However, all these studies were conducted in foreign countries, and they mostly focused on elementary school students and teachers.

As regards the effects of demographic features on classroom management, a few studies have been conducted. Amadi and Allagoa (2017) investigated the demographic variables as determinants of teachers’ effectiveness in classroom management in secondary schools in Rivers State of Nigeria, and found that age, experience, and educational qualification had significant influence on teachers' classroom management. Similarly, with regard to the effect of demographic features on classroom management, there is a study by Martin, and Shoho (2000) which examined possible changes in beliefs and perceptions of teachers through time and experience. The results revealed that while traditionally trained student teachers tend to be less interventionist, experienced teachers are more controlling towards people and behavior management.

Besides there are many other studies each focusing on particular aspects of classroom management and teaching styles (see Faruji, 2012 for teaching styles in private language institutes; Martin, & Shoho, 2000 for the influence of experience, training, and age on classroom management; Martin, Yin, & Mayall, 2006 for teachers’ attitudes towards classroom management; and Nejati, Hassani, & Sahrapour, 2014 for classroom management of Iranian EFL teachers). However, to the best of the researchers’ knowledge, there exists little research to specifically explore the possible effects of age, gender, teaching context, teaching experience, and academic degree on the way teachers choose to manage their classrooms in Iran.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Given the importance of classroom management in teaching and learning and lack of enough thorough research covering classroom management strategies in different teaching contexts such as schools, institutes, and universities, their differences, and effects on classroom management of demographic features, the present study aimed to examine the effects of age, gender, teaching experience, teaching context, and academic degree of Iranian English teachers on their classroom management behaviors. Therefore, the current study seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. Is there any relationship between teachers’ age groups and their classroom management behaviors?
2. Do male and female teachers show significantly different classroom management behaviors?
3. Do teaching context, teaching experience, and academic degree influence the Iranian English teachers’ classroom management behaviors significantly?

METHOD

Participants

The total number of participants is 152 teachers teaching at different Iranian high schools, private language institutes, and universities. Snowball sampling based on  (Dornyei, 2007) was adopted in the study in which the participants were asked to share the questionnaire with their friends and colleagues in different cities from various high schools, private language institutes, and universities. The participants were not selected randomly since the researcher did not have access to a big population and could not determine the total number of population. These teachers worked in different teaching contexts, were of different genders, had different teaching experiences, held different academic degrees, and belonged to different age groups. Table 1 presents the detailed information about the participants and their backgrounds.  

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of the participants

Instrumentation

A questionnaire with a Likert scale type ranging from "never" to "always" including 40 items was distributed among the participants. This questionnaire aimed to give the researchers some information about the participants' behavior in managing their classroom. The items of the questionnaire were adopted from four different sources: Classroom Management Techniques (Scrivener, 2012); Teacher Classroom Management Strategies Questionnaire (Webster-Stratton, 2012); Classroom Management Questionnaire (Shawer, 2010); and A Handbook for Classroom Management that Works (Marzano, Gaddy, Foseid, Foseid, & Marzano, 2005). The most related and applicable items to the Iranian culture were adopted from each questionnaire by the researchers. These items were checked, revised, and reworded to make them more suitable for the aims of the research, then they were translated to Persian. The translated questionnaire was sent to four experts for checking the validity of the instrument and wording of the items. The comments of the experts were incorporated, and the wording of the five items was changed. Two items were deleted, and three items that were ambiguous were totally changed to be clear enough for the teachers. The reliability index was measured in the pilot study, and it was shown to be 0.81. Since this was the highest reliability index possible and deleting items did not lead to an increase in reliability, no item was deleted. 

The final questionnaire included 40 items that were related to behavior management, time management, and instructional management. Besides these, the gender, age, academic degree, teaching context, and teaching experience of the participants were also asked. As mentioned above, in order to ensure the subjects' understanding of the items, the translated version of the questionnaire was distributed. Finally, to collect the data, the questionnaire was designed using google forms, and its link was sent to the participants.

Data Collection Procedure

To conduct the present study, the following steps were taken. As the first step, the classroom management questionnaire was distributed among the participants. This researcher-made questionnaire was on a Likert scale type ranging from "always" to "never", in which “always” was coded as 5 and “never” was coded 1 in the data analysis stage. The participants were asked to answer several questions related to their age, gender, academic degree, teaching experience, and teaching context. It took the participants about 15 minutes to complete the questionnaire. All the participants filled out the questionnaire, using google forms. After completing the data collection phase, the data were entered into SPSS (version 24). The collected quantitative data were analyzed, and tables presenting descriptive statistics (mean) were presented.

Data Analysis

To answer the first research question and find any possible relationship between teachers’ age groups and their classroom management behaviors, the Point-Biserial correlation was used. After that, an independent sample t-test was used to find out if men and women were different in their classroom management behaviors. Finally, a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was run in order to answer the last research questions concerning the possible effects of teaching context, teaching experience, and academic degree on the teachers’ classroom management behavior.

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics of the Responses

In order to give a general picture of the classroom management behaviors of the teachers, the descriptive statistics are presented first. As the last column shows, there are 25 items related to behavior management, coded as BM. Instructional management which is coded as IM included 12 items, and time management which is coded as TM consists of 3 items.

Table 2: Descriptive statistics of the respondents to the questionnaire

As regards the time management category, there were three items in the questionnaire, all of which had high means; 4.44, 3.90, and 4.27. The item with the highest mean in this category is "I attend my classes on time" (M = 4.44). The next item which ranked the lowest in time management category is "I set out time limits for students to achieve tasks" (M = 3.90). In the middle of this category stands the item "I am good at time management" (M = 4.27). Additionally, the total mean score of the items in time management is 4.20, which makes it the highest category of the classroom management in which the teachers perform better than the other two.

Another category with regard to classroom management was instructional management. This category consists of 12 items, and the total mean score of the items ranked the second-highest among the three categories (3.67). Two items that received the highest points among the participants in this category are items 6 and 40 respectively, "I usually check the students' attendance" (M =4.30), and "I use simple and clear English to make instructions understandable" (M = 4.05). On the other hand, the two least ranked items in this category are "I involve students in establishing rules and procedures" (M = 3.00), and "I provide extra tasks for high ability students" (M = 2.97).

Moreover, with regard to behavior management, which has scored the lowest among the three aspects, the total mean was 3.49. in this part, the highest scores were observed in the following items: item 17 "I look confident in class and teaching" (.M = 4.26), and item 11 “I provide positive reinforcement to students for appropriate behavior”. On the contrary, the items with the least amount of agreement among the participants are item 13 "Students use self-assessment forms to evaluate their own behavior" (M = 2.57), and item 4 "I specify the strict time of entering the classroom where nobody can enter beyond it" (M = 2.34). Additionally, the item with the least score of all belongs to this category as well: I send students out for aggressive or disruptive behavior (M = 2.32).

Besides, regarding the five different factors of the study, females outnumbered males in the sample with mean of 145.2 versus 140.3, accordingly. As far as their age is concerned, participants belonged to nine different age groups, with 26-30 years including the highest number of them (60 participants) with the mean score of 145.13 as opposed to that of over 60 years (mean score of 133). In addition, mean teaching experience score of over 15 years (145.37) was the highest while that of 11-15 years was the lowest (138.6). They belonged to four different groups of years of teaching experience. Of 152 participants, 72 had the least amount of experience (1-5 years), and 15 participants belonged to the moderately experienced group (11-15 years of teaching), while 27 participants had the highest amount of experience (over 15 years). Further, speaking of the teaching contexts of the participants, mean score of the institute teachers was 144.06 compared to university professors with the lowest mean score of 142.08. As regards the last factor, most of the participants held MA academic degree (mean score: 145.05), 59 of them held BA, and 20 had a Ph.D. with the lowest mean score of 140.65.

Next, in order to check the normality of the total scores of the participants on the questionnaire, two tests of normality, namely Kolmogorov-Smirnov, and Shapiro-Wilk tests, were conducted. Table 3 presents the results of these tests.

Table 3: The results of the normality test for teachers’ total score

Research Question One

The above table presents the results from two tests of normality, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov^a test and the Shapiro-Wilk test. According to this table, total scores of the students were normally distributed, D (152) = 0.988, p = 0.0191. Since the data were normally distributed, parametric tests were conducted for analyzing the data and answering the research questions.

The first research question of the study was as follows: Is there any relationship between teachers’ age groups and their classroom management behaviors? Since one variable is categorical and one is continuous, the researchers conducted Point-Biserial Correlation using SPSS Statistics. The results of the test are presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Point-Biserial correlation results for teachers' age groups and classroom management behavior

A Point-Biserial correlation was run to determine the relationship between teachers’ age groups and their classroom management behaviors. There was not any statistically significant correlation between the teachers’ age groups and their classroom management behaviors (rpb = -.081, n = 152, p = .0319).

Research Question Two

The second research question of the study aimed to find if male and female teachers showed significantly different classroom management behaviors. The researchers used independent sample t-test to compare men and women in relation to their classroom management behavior.

Table 5: Independent-samples t-test results for gender

According to the above table, gender had a statistically significant effect on the scores of the participants in the classroom management behavior questionnaire, t(150) = 2.187, p= .030. Looking at the Independent Samples T-test table, it is obvious that men and women are using different classroom management strategies.

Research Question Three

The last research question was concerned with three different factors: Do teaching context, teaching experience, and academic degree influence the Iranian English teachers’ classroom management behaviors significantly? Firstly, to find out if teaching context is a significant factor in determining the total score of the participants in the questionnaire data, one-way ANOVA was used.

Table 6: Results of the one-way ANOVA test for teaching context

There was not any statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F(2,149) = .295, p = .745). In other words, the teaching context did not significantly influence the score of participants in the classroom management behavior questionnaire. Secondly, ANOVA was used to analyze the significance of the years of teaching experience in determining the participants’ classroom management behavior.

Table 7: ANOVA results for teaching experience

According to the above table, there was not any statistically significant difference between the different groups of teachers with various teaching experiences as determined by one-way ANOVA (F(3,148) = .832, p = .478). To be more exact, the teaching experience of the students did not significantly influence the scores of participants in the classroom management behavior questionnaire. Lastly, to figure out if academic degree significantly affected the total score of the participants in the questionnaire data, one-way ANOVA was used once more. According to Table 8, there was no statistically significant difference between groups as determined by one-way ANOVA (F(2,149) = 1.298, p = .276).

Table 8: ANOVA results for academic degree

DISCUSSION

The study aimed to investigate the possible relationship between classroom mamnagement behaviors of the Iranian English teachers and their age, gender, teaching experience, teaching context, and academic degree. The needed data were gathered using a researcher-made questionnaire, and the data were analysed using descriptive statistics, t-test, ANOVA, and Point-Biserial correlation. Overall, the results indicate that, except for gender, the factors explored in this study are of no significant relation to the teachers’ classroom management behaviors. Research question one sought to determine the relationship between teachers’ age groups and their classroom management behaviors. To achieve this, a point-biserial correlation was run. The result showed that there was no statistically significant correlation between the teachers’ age groups and their behaviors. Research question two sought to determine the differences between male and female in classroom management behaviors. To achieve this, the performance of men and women in using classroom management techniques was compared. This study was found that gender had a statistically significant effect on the scores of the participants in the classroom management behavior questionnaire. The result showed that men and women used different classroom management strategies. Research question three sought to determine the effectiveness of teaching context, teaching experience, and academic degree on Iranian English teachers’ classroom management behaviors. To achieve this, the One-way ANOVA test was done. The result showed that context, experience, and academic degree did not statistically significantly influence the score of participants in the classroom management behavior questionnaire.

With regard to the teaching experience, it was found that more experienced teachers do not differ with less experienced teachers in adopting different classroom management techniques. This is the case in this study while researchers in the literature have frequently referred to the influence teaching experience has on the classroom management studies. Berger, Girardet, Vaudroz, and Crahay (2018), for example, in an attempt to utilize a coherent network among teaching experience, teachers’ beliefs, and self-reported classroom management practices, asserted that not only are the years of experience associated with specific beliefs, but also the teachers’ self-efficacy together with the students’ engagement is positively affected by the amount of teaching experience teachers have already acquired. They further argue that, as a second effect of teaching experience on classroom management, experienced teachers favor constructivism in their teaching instructions which is in line with what was previously found by Black, and Ammon (1992), as cited in Berger et. al., (2018). Additionally, they continue, it confirms the point stated by Borko, and Putnam (1996), and Calderhead (1996) who believed that novice teachers tend to favor transmission of knowledge (in contrast to constructivist beliefs). These suggest that, as teachers spend more years teaching, and, consequently, gain more experience, their teaching practices undergo some changes due to different possible factors such as the dynamics of different classroom environments teachers experience, different institutional requirements they need to fulfil, etc.

As another study dealing with the effect of teaching experience on classroom management, somehow in contrast to that of Berger et. al., (2018), Ünal, and Ünal (2012) asserted that while experienced teachers favor interventionism in their instructions and believe in full teacher classroom control, less experienced teachers tend to lean towards interactionism in their instruction and believe in shared responsibility between the teacher and the students in classroom control. This finding, they argue, was in line with those of previous studies in the literature (Horak & Roubinek, 1982; Martin & Baldwin, 1993, as cited in Ünal & Ünal, 2012; Swanson, O’Connor, & Cooney, 1990).

Thus, although studies in the literature may have shown contrasting results in this area, a point which all have in common is that teaching experience does influence classroom management techniques teachers may adopt. Nevertheless, the present study found no correlation between the two factors. Different factors may have resulted in this finding: the context of Iran, the teachers’ past experiences, institutional constrains, and firm teaching frameworks.

According to the results of this study, the teaching context (English institute, state schools, and university classrooms) did not significantly affect the classroom management behavior teachers choose. One related study in the literature is that of Faruji (2012) who examined the dominant teaching style of the teachers in Iranian private language institutes based on the Grasha’s (1996) taxonomy of teaching styles. There are five different teaching styles in this taxonomy: expert (a teacher as a knowledge possessor who is concerned with exhibiting comprehensive knowledge and transmitting information to the students), formal authority (a teacher who is concerned with maintaining the status he/she prefers among the students, framing the goals and expectations, and providing the standard ways to act and behave), personal model (a teacher who personally shows how to do different things, behave, and think in order to establish an example which students need to observe and follow), facilitator (a teacher who encourages teacher-student interactions, asks questions, suggest alternatives, etc. to guide students, provides support and encouragement for students as they are engaged in doing projects with the overall goal of helping students to become independent and responsible), and delegator (a teacher who helps students become autonomous to work independently (individually or as a team) on projects). Faruji (2012) found that teachers in Iranian institutes prefer formal authority, expert model, facilitator, personal, and delegator styles, respectively. This finding shows that, in contrast to the present study, teaching context may have some effects on the way teachers follow to manage their classrooms as Iranian teachers in private institutes seem, based on Faruji (2012), to choose the formal authority style the most frequently. On the other hand, Alimorad, and Tajgozari (2016) found that English teachers in Iran, regardless to what students value, favor and follow traditional teaching methods. This finding seems to corroborate the findings of the present study with regard to the teaching context which suggests that the context may not significantly influence the way teachers manage their classrooms.

Therefore, it seems that, the literature confirms the fact that contextual differences can result in mismatches between the findings of the studies investigating the same issue. Accordingly, while Faruji (2012) found teachers with specific teaching styles in Iran, Alomorad, and Tajgozari (2016) asserted that teachers favor one specific way for instruction in the same country.

Teachers with different academic degrees (B.A., M.A., and PhD) participated in this study. Their answers to the questionnaire and their total score were analyzed using ANOVA based on the different academic degrees they hold. The results showed that, academic degrees seem not to influence the way teachers in this study choose to manage their classrooms. There are not many studies in the literature exploring the effect of different academic degrees teachers hold on their teaching style or classroom management. One related area is the relationship between teaching and classroom management with teachers’ self-efficacy. Research has shown that self-efficacy is an important parameter for teachers and their activities. Teachers who have developed a strong sense of self-efficacy secure a serious commitment to their job (Ware & Kitsantas, 2007), establish a more valuable learning atmosphere (Gencer & Cakiroglu, 2007), and apply teaching methods more innovatively (Wertheim & Leyser, 2007). A related study is that of Akbari, and Moradkhani (2010) who aimed at investigating possible relationships between teacher self-efficacy and their academic degree and teaching experience. They found that experienced teachers with more than 3 years of experience showed higher levels of efficacy for student engagement, classroom management, and applying instructional strategies. In contrast, in their study, teachers who had academic degrees for English teaching practice showed high levels of self-efficacy only for the first component (student engagement), and having English-related academic degree did not influence the self-efficacy of teachers for classroom management, and applying instructional strategies. This is in line with the results of the present study. In order to provide a possible explanation, a closer look at the English teaching programs in Iran should be taken. The academic programs offer a few courses on the actual practical teaching. They are, generally called, methodology, testing, and teaching skills. Even in the same courses, students are mostly provided with theoretical underpinnings with little actual practice. Consequently, student teachers may not develop all of the practical skills they need to manage their classrooms better (or at least differently) as they get higher academic degrees. And, this may be a reason why the academic degree has not significantly influenced the way teachers manage their classrooms in this study.

The only component which was found to have a significant effect on the classroom management was gender. According to the results of this study, male and female participants apply significantly different strategies to manage their classrooms. Conversely, in a similar study, exploring the possible relationship between gender and classroom management as a subscale of self-efficacy, Nejati, Hassani, and Sahrapour (2014) found that gender is not significantly related to classroom management among a sample of Iranian EFL teachers of a private English institute. On the other hand, in a follow-up attempt to refine a previously developed classroom control inventory comprising of instructional management, people management, and behavior management, Martin, Yin, and Mayall (2006), found significant differences between males and females with regard to instruction management subscale on the inventory. Female teachers were shown to favor interventionist behavior more than male ones. These contrasting findings indicate that gender may or may not significantly affect the way teachers choose to manage their classroom, and possibly many different factors (apart from gender) play parts in decisions teachers make while teaching.

No significant relationship was found between different age groups and their classroom management styles in this study. This finding can possibly be explained by the fact that the rules and standards of the teaching contexts such as private English institutes explored in this study are stricter and more decisive than the factor of age in shaping the participant teachers’ classroom management styles. In contrast to this finding, Martin, and Shoho (2000) identified some differences between student, novice and experienced teachers, who were grouped up in terms of their age, in their classroom management perceptions and beliefs. After the participants filled out a classroom control inventory, older teachers scored significantly interventionist and more controlling than their younger counterparts. This, they assert, is because of the fact that student teachers (or younger participants), in comparison to older teachers, lack practical experience and are more idealism toward theoretical considerations in teaching.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Within this study, classroom management was defined as a list of different activities teachers undertake to manage their classroom more efficiently. The activities (or items) which made up the construct of classroom management involved three dimensions: instruction management, time management, and behavior management. Data were collected from school, private institute, and university teachers with different genders, teaching experiences, academic degrees, age groups in different teaching contexts via a researcher-made questionnaire. Results revealed that except for gender, no other factor (age, teaching context, teaching experience, or academic degree) could significantly contribute to the decisions teachers made in their classroom management behaviors. On the other hand, all of the factors were previously shown to have significant effects on the same construct (classroom management) in the literature. The findings in this study were explained by possible institutional constrains, firm instructional rules, less practical and more theoretical teacher education programs.

These results suggest that teachers in different settings do not apply different classroom management strategies, while the type of strategy that teacher chooses must be dependent on the context of teaching and the classroom atmosphere. Thus, it is suggested that teacher trainers in teacher training centers, university professors, and institute supervisors must increase the awareness of teachers of these strategies. Besides, teachers are suggested to vary their strategies according to the context, level of the students, classroom atmosphere, and the number of students in their classes.

The lack of no significant difference among the various groups in this study might be attributed to the fact that the data were collected through self-report questionnaires. Therefore, it is suggested that future researchers use other data collection tools such as interviews in order to find out why these teachers apply similar startegies in such different contexts. Another suggestion is to conduct future studies using classroom observation to find out more accurate data in this regard. The last suggestion is that since teachers and students might not share the same ideas about effective classroom strategies, future studies can compare the extent to which these two groups differ in their preferences for classroom management. 

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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